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Scientific background

Mental health in VR: what do we know?

Virtual Reality is increasingly being studied as a tool for mental wellbeing. Here you can read what research shows, how Dream Fiction builds on it, and where the limits of current knowledge lie.

In brief

  • In several studies, VR relaxation shows short-term effects on perceived stress, with high acceptance.
  • Research into depressive symptoms is growing, but more controlled studies with larger groups are needed.
  • So far, the strongest evidence for VR therapy lies with anxiety disorders, under the supervision of practitioners.
  • Research on VR in general does not automatically say anything about Dream Fiction. Our experiences have not yet been clinically validated.

Today’s challenge

We live in a world that never stops. Work, social media, notifications and expectations constantly demand attention, with little room to really pause. For many people, that constant stream of stimuli contributes to stress, fatigue and mental overload.

At the same time, many people face barriers to seeking help. Think of waiting times, the stigma around mental healthcare, or support that does not fit their moment, location or needs. That is why interest is growing in accessible, safe and flexible tools, as a first step or as a complement to existing care.

Three types of evidence, deliberately kept apart

To be honest about what we know, we always distinguish between three levels.

  1. 1

    General VR research

    Research into VR relaxation and immersion in general, for example the effect of a calm virtual environment on perceived stress.

  2. 2

    Psychological interventions through VR

    Research into specific forms of treatment in VR, such as VR cognitive behavioural therapy under the supervision of practitioners.

  3. 3

    Dream Fiction itself

    Research into our own experiences. This has not yet been carried out: the experiences have not been clinically validated.

About the evidence for Dream Fiction itself

The studies on this page do not show that Dream Fiction itself is effective. They form the scientific context within which we design our experiences. We are actively seeking collaboration with healthcare and research partners to evaluate our experiences carefully.

VR as a medium: immersion and presence

Our brains are made to alternate between effort and recovery. Rest is not a luxury, but an essential part of mental health. Virtual Reality can immerse you in a different environment. Researchers speak of immersion (the extent to which the technology surrounds your senses) and presence (the feeling of really being there).

As outside distractions fade into the background, room can open up for focus, relaxation and experience. A virtual environment is also designed and defined: what you see and hear has been carefully composed.

To do this, Dream Fiction combines:

  • Rich, immersive visual worlds
  • Soundscapes that match the atmosphere and attention
  • Guided reflection as a bridge to awareness
  • In a later phase, possibly biofeedback, such as heart rate and breathing. This is a future vision and not yet available.

Research

VR for stress and burnout complaints

Research in this area ranges from physiological measurements (such as heart rate) to interviews and systematic reviews. The results are mainly positive for the short term, often among healthcare professionals and other high-pressure groups. Many studies are small or have no control group.

  • Randomised study51 healthcare professionals

    Soh et al. (2021)

    Compared mindfulness exercises delivered as audio only and in a VR environment. Participants reported less mood disturbance with VR (when VR was offered after audio) and said they felt more engaged with VR.

    An indication that the visual, immersive layer can add something to existing relaxation exercises.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Controlled studyAdults

    Villani & Riva (2012)

    Tested a stress management protocol delivered via VR, video and audio. All three formats helped with stress management; the VR version showed the largest psychophysiological improvements.

    An early study of VR as a vehicle for guided relaxation and imagery exercises.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Mixed-methods study21 young adults (aged 18–25)

    McGarry et al. (2023)

    Measured heart rate and experiences around an immersive VR session. Heart rate fell during the session and participants described feeling relaxed and ‘somewhere else’.

    Shows how immersion can help people step away from their everyday surroundings for a while. Small sample.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Systematic review19 studies, 1,278 participants (general population)

    Riches et al. (2021)

    Found indications of feasibility, acceptability and short-term effects of VR relaxation on stress. The authors point to limitations: few randomised studies and little long-term data.

    An important basis for VR relaxation as a short, preventive moment.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Systematic reviewStudies on workplace wellbeing

    Riches et al. (2023)

    Brought together research on VR and immersive technology for workplace wellbeing. The results are promising, but interventions were often short, often took place in a lab setting and had little follow-up.

    Relevant for organisations considering VR as part of their wellbeing policy.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Feasibility study20 mental health staff

    Williams et al. (2024)

    Examined VR relaxation for staff in complex care settings. After the sessions, participants reported better wellbeing and less psychological distress; the approach proved feasible and acceptable.

    An indication that VR relaxation can also fit into busy work environments.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Pilot study (before and after)35 emergency physicians

    Birrenbach et al. (2025)

    A 6–8 minute VR meditation during work. Perceived stress fell immediately after the session (median from 4 to 2 on a 0–10 scale), with few side effects.

    An indication that even short VR moments can make a noticeable difference. There was no control group.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Pilot study (before and after)90 healthcare professionals, 83 completed the programme

    Ferrer Costa et al. (2024)

    Eight weekly VR sessions of 10–13 minutes focused on mindfulness and emotion management. The researchers report improvements on burnout and work engagement scales (MBI and UWES).

    A first indication for VR within a recurring programme. Without a control group, so provisional.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)

What we take from this

VR relaxation seems feasible, is well received and can reduce perceived stress in the short term, even in short sessions of a few minutes. That makes VR interesting for preventive applications. Little is yet known about longer-term effects, or about the treatment of burnout.

Research

VR for depressive symptoms

Here too, the research is varied: from small proof-of-concept studies to reviews and meta-reviews. Some studies examine VR within professional treatment, others VR relaxation as a complement. Please note: not every study below is specifically about depression or about VR.

  • Open proof-of-concept study15 patients with depression

    Falconer et al. (2016)

    Participants practised self-compassion through ‘embodiment’ in VR: they gave compassion from one virtual body and received it from another. Depressive symptoms and self-criticism decreased and self-compassion increased. The authors describe the results as preliminary.

    Illustrates a mechanism that is possible in VR, but calls for controlled follow-up research.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Randomised controlled trial116 people with a psychotic disorder

    Pot-Kolder et al. (2018)

    Compared VR cognitive behavioural therapy (16 sessions) with a waiting list, alongside usual treatment. VR-CBT reduced paranoid thoughts and momentary anxiety. This is not a depression study, but it is a strong example of CBT delivered through VR.

    Shows what VR can mean within professional treatment. Under the supervision of practitioners.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Randomised controlled trial60 older women with depressive symptoms

    Cieślik et al. (2023)

    Eight immersive VR relaxation sessions were compared with group relaxation, both alongside an exercise programme. The VR group showed a greater reduction on the Geriatric Depression Scale and the HADS.

    An indication that aesthetic, calming VR environments can play a complementary role.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Scoping reviewStudies on VR for depression and anxiety

    Baghaei et al. (2021)

    Maps research on VR to support the treatment of depression and anxiety. Many studies report symptom reduction, particularly when VR is combined with principles from cognitive behavioural therapy.

    Points to the possible value of VR for people who find it hard to seek help.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Systematic reviewStudies on VR for mental disorders

    Wiebe et al. (2022)

    A broad overview of VR in diagnosis and therapy. For depression, VR seems promising for behavioural activation and self-compassion training, among other things, but the authors call for more controlled studies with larger groups.

    Underlines that the field is growing, and that stronger evidence is still needed.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Systematic reviewRandomised studies on VR and gamification

    Jingili et al. (2023)

    Examined VR and gamification interventions for anxiety and depression. The included studies showed positive effects on at least one outcome measure; interventions that combined immersion with cognitive techniques seemed most effective.

    Fits the combination of experience, sound and guided reflection.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Meta-review of meta-analyses11 meta-analyses

    Dellazizzo et al. (2020)

    Summarises the quality of the evidence for VR therapies for psychiatric disorders. So far, VR interventions have mainly been developed and studied for anxiety-related disorders; for other conditions the evidence is more limited.

    Puts the results into perspective: the strongest evidence lies with anxiety, not yet with depression.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Systematic review and meta-analysisRandomised studies in adults with a depressive disorder

    Schiller et al. (2023)

    Examined ‘virtual care’: remote care and digital forms of treatment in the broad sense, not VR specifically. There was moderate-strength evidence that face-to-face treatment did not give clearly better results than virtual treatment.

    Relevant for the digital accessibility of care, but not evidence for VR as such.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)

What we take from this

There are positive indications that VR can contribute to supporting people with depressive symptoms, particularly in combination with techniques from cognitive behavioural therapy and under supervision. The evidence is still developing: researchers are calling for larger, controlled studies.

Psychological insight

Multisensory de-escalation

Multisensory de-escalation is the deliberate use of image, sound and other sensory input to help reduce tension. The idea builds on research into recovery in natural environments, on the influence of sound and music on stress, and on the practice of sensory rooms in healthcare. VR makes it possible to compose such an environment carefully.

  • Experimental lab study120 participants

    Ulrich et al. (1991)

    Participants first watched a stressful film and then images and sounds of a natural or an urban environment. With natural environments, heart rate, muscle tension and skin conductance recovered faster and more completely.

    A classic basis for stress recovery theory: what you see and hear affects how quickly your body calms down.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Experimental lab studyHealthy adults

    Alvarsson et al. (2010)

    After a stressful arithmetic task, participants listened to nature sounds or environmental noise. With nature sounds, the physiological stress response (skin conductance) recovered faster.

    Shows that sound alone contributes to recovery. Relevant for the soundscapes in VR worlds.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Systematic review and two meta-analysesMore than 100 randomised studies

    De Witte et al. (2020)

    Brought together randomised studies on music interventions. Music showed small to medium effects on both physiological stress measures (such as heart rate and cortisol) and perceived stress.

    Supports the deliberate use of music and sound as a way to help reduce tension.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Randomised pilot studyHealthy adult men (small group)

    Annerstedt et al. (2013)

    After a standardised stress test, participants spent time in a virtual forest, with or without nature sounds. The virtual forest with sound was associated with better physiological recovery (including heart rate variability).

    An indication that the combination of image and sound in VR can support recovery. A pilot study, to be interpreted with caution.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Experimental study in a multisensory virtual environmentHealthy adults

    Hedblom et al. (2019)

    Participants experienced 360° images, sounds and smells of an urban environment, a park or a forest. In the green environments, the physiological stress response (skin conductance) was lower than in the urban environment.

    One of the few studies that combines several senses at once in a virtual environment.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Randomised experimentMore than 100 students

    Browning et al. (2020)

    Compared a short walk outdoors in nature with a 360° nature video in VR and a control condition. Real nature improved mood the most; VR nature showed some of the benefits, but not the same improvement in mood.

    An honest nuance: simulated environments can offer something, but are not automatically equivalent to real nature.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Pilot study (before and after)Patients on an acute psychiatric inpatient ward

    Novak et al. (2012)

    Examined the use of a sensory room (with light, sound and tactile materials, among other things) on an acute inpatient ward. After using the room, patients reported less agitation and tension on average.

    An example of multisensory de-escalation in care practice. Without a control group, so provisional.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Meta-analysisSmall studies in people with an intellectual disability

    Lotan & Gold (2009)

    Brought together studies on individual sessions in a controlled multisensory environment (Snoezelen). The authors found a positive effect, but base this on a small number of small studies.

    Shows that multisensory environments have been used and studied for some time, and that the evidence is still limited.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)

What we take from this

In several studies, images and sounds of calm, natural environments are associated with faster physiological recovery after stress, and music shows small to medium effects on stress. VR versions show similar indications, although those studies are often small and short, and a virtual environment is not automatically the same as real nature. Research into sensory rooms in healthcare is promising, but still limited.

How Dream Fiction uses this

We carefully choose colours, pace, transitions and soundscapes, so that a world feels predictable and calming.

Psychological insight

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)

Cognitive behavioural therapy is based on the interplay between thoughts, feelings and behaviour. By becoming aware of your thoughts and examining them, you can learn to respond differently. CBT is one of the most thoroughly researched psychological treatments, including in digital forms and in VR.

  • Review articleForty years of research on cognitive therapy

    Beck (2005)

    The founder of cognitive therapy looks back on forty years of research. The cognitive model, in which thoughts, feelings and behaviour influence each other, has been tested in many controlled studies, including for depression and anxiety.

    Describes the model behind the guided reflection in our experiences.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Review of meta-analyses16 meta-analyses

    Butler et al. (2006)

    Summarised meta-analyses on CBT. There were large effects for depression, generalised anxiety, panic disorder, social anxiety and PTSD, among others, and medium effects for relationship problems and anger, for example.

    Shows how widely CBT has been studied.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Review of meta-analysesMore than 260 meta-analyses

    Hofmann et al. (2012)

    A large overview of the efficacy of CBT. The strongest evidence was for anxiety disorders, somatoform disorders, bulimia, anger control problems and general stress.

    Relevant for the application to stress: CBT techniques have also been studied beyond the classic disorders.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Meta-analysisRandomised studies in adults with depression

    Cuijpers et al. (2013)

    CBT was effective for depression in adults compared with control conditions. The effects were comparable to those of other psychotherapies and of medication, and smaller in the methodologically strongest studies.

    Supports CBT as an established treatment for depression, and shows why study quality matters.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Comprehensive meta-analysis409 studies, 52,702 patients

    Cuijpers et al. (2023)

    The largest meta-analysis to date on CBT for depression. CBT was more effective than control conditions and comparable to other psychotherapies and antidepressants; a combination with medication worked better than either alone.

    The current, broad evidence for CBT in depression.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Systematic review and meta-analysisRandomised studies in anxiety-related disorders

    Van Dis et al. (2020)

    Examined the longer-term effects of CBT for anxiety. CBT was more effective than control conditions up to about twelve months after treatment; less is known about the period after that.

    An honest look at how long effects last, even with a well-researched method.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Network meta-analysis with individual patient dataRandomised studies on internet-based CBT for depression

    Karyotaki et al. (2021)

    Compared guided and unguided internet-based CBT. Both were more effective than control conditions; guided internet CBT showed the largest effects, while unguided forms seemed mainly suitable for milder symptoms.

    Shows that CBT principles can also work digitally, and that guidance matters.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Meta-analysis of randomised studiesStudies on VR exposure for anxiety

    Carl et al. (2019)

    VR exposure therapy, a form of CBT in VR, had a large effect compared with a waiting list and was about as effective as exposure in real life.

    The strongest example of CBT delivered through VR, under the supervision of practitioners.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)

What we take from this

The evidence for CBT is strong and broad: hundreds of randomised studies show effects for depression, anxiety and stress, among others. CBT also works online, with the largest effects when there is guidance, and VR exposure (a form of CBT in VR) is about as effective for anxiety as exposure in real life. That evidence concerns CBT as a treatment, under the supervision of professionals.

How Dream Fiction uses this

We use CBT-inspired elements, such as guided reflection on thoughts and feelings. Our experiences are not a CBT treatment in themselves.

Psychological insight

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)

Neuro-Linguistic Programming is an approach from the 1970s about the relationship between language, thoughts and personal experience. NLP is widely used in coaching and training. Scientifically it is disputed, and we deliberately show that here.

  • Literature reviewStudies on the ‘preferred representational system’

    Sharpley (1984)

    Reviewed research on a core idea of NLP: that people have a preference for seeing, hearing or feeling, and that you improve rapport by matching it. The research gave little support for this.

    An early, critical test of the basic assumptions of NLP.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Literature reviewFollow-up research on NLP

    Sharpley (1987)

    A follow-up to the earlier review. The newer research did not support the NLP assumptions either; the author questions whether NLP can be properly tested at all.

    Makes clear why NLP is scientifically disputed.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Analysis of a research databaseEmpirical NLP studies from 35 years

    Witkowski (2010)

    Analysed the empirical studies in a database of NLP research. The majority did not support the core assumptions of NLP; only a small proportion was supportive.

    A critical overview covering a long period.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Systematic reviewControlled studies on health outcomes

    Sturt et al. (2012)

    Searched for controlled studies on the effect of NLP on health. The authors conclude that there is insufficient evidence to recommend NLP for health outcomes.

    The main reason why we do not present NLP as an effective mechanism.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Three experimental studiesAdult participants

    Wiseman et al. (2012)

    Tested the NLP claim that eye movements reveal whether someone is lying. Three studies found no support for this.

    A concrete example of an NLP claim that does not hold up when tested.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Meta-analysisControlled studies on NLP-based psychotherapy

    Zaharia et al. (2015)

    Reported positive effects of NLP-based psychotherapy on psychological symptoms. The analysis is based on a small number of studies with methodological limitations.

    One of the few positive review studies; that is why we mention it, with due caution.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Systematic reviewStudies on NLP in organisations

    Kotera et al. (2019)

    Examined NLP applications in work settings. Some studies reported positive psychological outcomes, but the quality of the evidence was low and more rigorous research is needed.

    Relevant because NLP is often used in organisations and coaching.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)
  • Literature reviewResearch on NLP and coaching

    Passmore & Rowson (2019)

    An overview of NLP research and its application in coaching. The authors conclude that the evidence is limited and call for more high-quality research.

    Confirms the picture from other reviews: widely used, poorly supported.

    View the publication(opens in a new tab)

What we take from this

Reviews covering almost forty years find little support for the core assumptions of NLP, and there is insufficient evidence for effects on health. There are a few positive studies, but they are small and methodologically limited. That is why we explicitly do not present NLP as a proven or effective mechanism.

How Dream Fiction uses this

We only use NLP as inspiration for language, imagination and storytelling in our worlds, not as a treatment method.

Our design principles and the state of the evidence

We draw inspiration from different approaches. Not all of them are equally well supported, and we are happy to say so honestly.

Design principles and the state of the scientific evidence
Relaxation in VRGrowing evidenceUse: Calm worlds, adaptive soundscapes and a calm pace.Evidence: Reviews show indications of feasibility and short-term effects on stress. Long-term evidence is limited.
CBT-inspired elementsStrong evidence for CBT itselfUse: Guided reflection and attention to thoughts and feelings.Evidence: Cognitive behavioural therapy is an established, well-researched treatment. Our experiences contain inspired elements, but they are not a CBT treatment.
Attention and emotional awarenessMixed evidenceUse: Shifting attention from everyday stimuli to image, sound and your own feelings.Evidence: Supported by research on relaxation and mindfulness, including through VR. Study quality varies.
Selected NLP techniquesWeak evidenceUse: A limited selection of imagery and communication techniques in the storytelling.Evidence: The scientific basis of Neuro-Linguistic Programming is weak. That is why we do not present these techniques as an effective clinical mechanism.

Opportunities and limits

Opportunities

  • Accessible, individual moments of calm
  • Use both in prevention and within supported programmes
  • Possibly intervening earlier, before complaints escalate
  • In future: biofeedback and more personal experiences

Limits

  • Not everyone tolerates VR; cybersickness occurs
  • Evidence is often short-term and from small studies
  • Hardware is needed, and privacy must be well safeguarded
  • VR does not replace professional care
Read more about the benefits and limits of VR

Sources

The publications on VR form the basis of Dream Fiction’s NeuroVR research report. The sources for the psychological insights were additionally selected from peer-reviewed scientific journals. Summaries on this page are deliberately cautious; always consult the original publication for details.

VR for stress and burnout

  1. Soh, D. J. H., Ong, C. H., Fan, Q., Seah, D. J. L., Henderson, S. L., Jeevanandam, L., & Doshi, K. (2021). Exploring the use of virtual reality for the delivery and practice of stress-management exercises. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 640341. doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.640341 (opens in a new tab)
  2. Villani, D., & Riva, G. (2012). Does interactive media enhance the management of stress? Suggestions from a controlled study. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(1), 24–30. doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0141 (opens in a new tab)
  3. McGarry, S., Brown, A., Gardner, M., Plowright, C., Skou, R., & Thompson, C. (2023). Immersive virtual reality: An effective strategy for reducing stress in young adults. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 86(8), 560–567. doi.org/10.1177/03080226231165644 (opens in a new tab)
  4. Riches, S., Azevedo, L., Bird, L., Pisani, S., & Valmaggia, L. (2021). Virtual reality relaxation for the general population: A systematic review. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 56(10), 1707–1727. doi.org/10.1007/s00127-021-02110-z (opens in a new tab)
  5. Riches, S., Taylor, L., Jeyarajaguru, P., Veling, W., & Valmaggia, L. (2023). Virtual reality and immersive technologies to promote workplace wellbeing: A systematic review. Journal of Mental Health, 33(2), 253–273. doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2023.2182428 (opens in a new tab)
  6. Williams, G., Riaz, M., Drini, E., & Riches, S. (2024). Virtual reality relaxation for mental health staff in complex care services: A feasibility and acceptability study. Mental Health & Prevention, 33, 200318. doi.org/10.1016/j.mhp.2023.200318 (opens in a new tab)
  7. Birrenbach, T., Häni, S., Jegerlehner, S., Schober, S., Exadaktylos, A. K., & Sauter, T. C. (2025). Feasibility, subjective effectiveness, and acceptance of short virtual reality relaxation breaks for immediate perceived stress reduction in emergency physicians. JMIR XR and Spatial Computing, 2, e72605. doi.org/10.2196/72605 (opens in a new tab)
  8. Ferrer Costa, J., Moran, N., Garcia Marti, C., Colmenares Hernandez, L. J., Ciorba Ciorba, F. R., & Ciudad, M. J. (2024). Immediate impact of an 8-week virtual reality educational program on burnout and work engagement among health care professionals: Pre-post pilot study. JMIR XR and Spatial Computing, 1, e55678. doi.org/10.2196/55678 (opens in a new tab)

VR for depressive symptoms

  1. Falconer, C. J., Rovira, A., King, J. A., Gilbert, P., Antley, A., Fearon, P., Ralph, N., Slater, M., & Brewin, C. R. (2016). Embodying self-compassion within virtual reality and its effects on patients with depression. BJPsych Open, 2(1), 74–80. doi.org/10.1192/bjpo.bp.115.002147 (opens in a new tab)
  2. Pot-Kolder, R. M. C. A., Geraets, C. N. W., Veling, W., van Beilen, M., Staring, A. B. P., Gijsman, H. J., Delespaul, P. A. E. G., & van der Gaag, M. (2018). Virtual-reality-based cognitive behavioural therapy versus waiting list control for paranoid ideation and social avoidance in patients with psychotic disorders: A single-blind randomised controlled trial. The Lancet Psychiatry, 5(3), 217–226. research.vu.nl/en/publications/virtual-reality-based-cognitive-behavioural-therapy-versus-waitin/ (opens in a new tab)
  3. Cieślik, B., Juszko, K., Kiper, P., & Szczepańska-Gieracha, J. (2023). Immersive virtual reality as support for the mental health of elderly women: A randomized controlled trial. Virtual Reality, 27(3), 2133–2143. doi.org/10.1007/s10055-023-00797-w (opens in a new tab)
  4. Baghaei, N., Chitale, V., Hlasnik, A., Stemmet, L., Liang, H.-N., & Porter, R. (2021). Virtual reality for supporting the treatment of depression and anxiety: Scoping review. JMIR Mental Health, 8(9), e29681. doi.org/10.2196/29681 (opens in a new tab)
  5. Wiebe, A., Kannen, K., Selaskowski, B., Mehren, A., Thöne, A.-K., Pramme, L., … Braun, N. (2022). Virtual reality in the diagnostic and therapy for mental disorders: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 98, 102213. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102213 (opens in a new tab)
  6. Jingili, N., Oyelere, S. S., Nyström, M. B. T., & Anyshchenko, L. (2023). A systematic review on the efficacy of virtual reality and gamification interventions for managing anxiety and depression. Frontiers in Digital Health, 5, 1239435. doi.org/10.3389/fdgth.2023.1239435 (opens in a new tab)
  7. Dellazizzo, L., Potvin, S., Luigi, M., & Dumais, A. (2020). Evidence on virtual reality–based therapies for psychiatric disorders: Meta-review of meta-analyses. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(8), e20889. doi.org/10.2196/20889 (opens in a new tab)
  8. Schiller, C. E., Prim, J., Bauer, A. E., Lux, L., Lundegard, L. C., Kang, M., … Gaynes, B. N. (2023). Efficacy of virtual care for depressive disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis. JMIR Mental Health, 10, e38955. doi.org/10.2196/38955 (opens in a new tab)

Psychological insight: Multisensory de-escalation

  1. Ulrich, R. S., Simons, R. F., Losito, B. D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M. A., & Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11(3), 201–230. doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80184-7 (opens in a new tab)
  2. Alvarsson, J. J., Wiens, S., & Nilsson, M. E. (2010). Stress recovery during exposure to nature sound and environmental noise. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 7(3), 1036–1046. doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7031036 (opens in a new tab)
  3. de Witte, M., Spruit, A., van Hooren, S., Moonen, X., & Stams, G.-J. (2020). Effects of music interventions on stress-related outcomes: A systematic review and two meta-analyses. Health Psychology Review, 14(2), 294–324. doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2019.1627897 (opens in a new tab)
  4. Annerstedt, M., Jönsson, P., Wallergård, M., Johansson, G., Karlson, B., Grahn, P., Hansen, Å. M., & Währborg, P. (2013). Inducing physiological stress recovery with sounds of nature in a virtual reality forest: Results from a pilot study. Physiology & Behavior, 118, 240–250. doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.05.023 (opens in a new tab)
  5. Hedblom, M., Gunnarsson, B., Iravani, B., Knez, I., Schaefer, M., Thorsson, P., & Lundström, J. N. (2019). Reduction of physiological stress by urban green space in a multisensory virtual experiment. Scientific Reports, 9, 10113. doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-46099-7 (opens in a new tab)
  6. Browning, M. H. E. M., Mimnaugh, K. J., van Riper, C. J., Laurent, H. K., & LaValle, S. M. (2020). Can simulated nature support mental health? Comparing short, single-doses of 360-degree nature videos in virtual reality with the outdoors. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2667. doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02667 (opens in a new tab)
  7. Novak, T., Scanlan, J., McCaul, D., MacDonald, N., & Clarke, T. (2012). Pilot study of a sensory room in an acute inpatient psychiatric unit. Australasian Psychiatry, 20(5), 401–406. doi.org/10.1177/1039856212459585 (opens in a new tab)
  8. Lotan, M., & Gold, C. (2009). Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of individual intervention in the controlled multisensory environment (Snoezelen®) for individuals with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 34(3), 207–215. doi.org/10.1080/13668250903080106 (opens in a new tab)

Psychological insight: Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)

  1. Beck, A. T. (2005). The current state of cognitive therapy: A 40-year retrospective. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(9), 953–959. doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.9.953 (opens in a new tab)
  2. Butler, A. C., Chapman, J. E., Forman, E. M., & Beck, A. T. (2006). The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(1), 17–31. doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2005.07.003 (opens in a new tab)
  3. Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani, A., Vonk, I. J. J., Sawyer, A. T., & Fang, A. (2012). The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36(5), 427–440. doi.org/10.1007/s10608-012-9476-1 (opens in a new tab)
  4. Cuijpers, P., Berking, M., Andersson, G., Quigley, L., Kleiboer, A., & Dobson, K. S. (2013). A meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioural therapy for adult depression, alone and in comparison with other treatments. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 58(7), 376–385. doi.org/10.1177/070674371305800702 (opens in a new tab)
  5. Cuijpers, P., Miguel, C., Harrer, M., Plessen, C. Y., Ciharova, M., Ebert, D., & Karyotaki, E. (2023). Cognitive behavior therapy vs. control conditions, other psychotherapies, pharmacotherapies and combined treatment for depression: A comprehensive meta-analysis including 409 trials with 52,702 patients. World Psychiatry, 22(1), 105–115. doi.org/10.1002/wps.21069 (opens in a new tab)
  6. van Dis, E. A. M., van Veen, S. C., Hagenaars, M. A., Batelaan, N. M., Bockting, C. L. H., van den Heuvel, R. M., Cuijpers, P., & Engelhard, I. M. (2020). Long-term outcomes of cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety-related disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 77(3), 265–273. doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3986 (opens in a new tab)
  7. Karyotaki, E., Efthimiou, O., Miguel, C., Maas genannt Bermpohl, F., Furukawa, T. A., Cuijpers, P., … Forsell, Y. (2021). Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy for depression: A systematic review and individual patient data network meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 78(4), 361–371. doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.4364 (opens in a new tab)
  8. Carl, E., Stein, A. T., Levihn-Coon, A., Pogue, J. R., Rothbaum, B., Emmelkamp, P., Asmundson, G. J. G., Carlbring, P., & Powers, M. B. (2019). Virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety and related disorders: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 61, 27–36. doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.08.003 (opens in a new tab)

Psychological insight: Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)

  1. Sharpley, C. F. (1984). Predicate matching in NLP: A review of research on the preferred representational system. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31(2), 238–248. doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.31.2.238 (opens in a new tab)
  2. Sharpley, C. F. (1987). Research findings on neurolinguistic programming: Nonsupportive data or an untestable theory? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34(1), 103–107. doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.34.1.103 (opens in a new tab)
  3. Witkowski, T. (2010). Thirty-five years of research on Neuro-Linguistic Programming. NLP research data base. State of the art or pseudoscientific decoration? Polish Psychological Bulletin, 41(2), 58–66. doi.org/10.2478/v10059-010-0008-0 (opens in a new tab)
  4. Sturt, J., Ali, S., Robertson, W., Metcalfe, D., Grove, A., Bourne, C., & Bridle, C. (2012). Neurolinguistic programming: A systematic review of the effects on health outcomes. British Journal of General Practice, 62(604), e757–e764. doi.org/10.3399/bjgp12X658287 (opens in a new tab)
  5. Wiseman, R., Watt, C., ten Brinke, L., Porter, S., Couper, S.-L., & Rankin, C. (2012). The eyes don't have it: Lie detection and Neuro-Linguistic Programming. PLoS ONE, 7(7), e40259. doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0040259 (opens in a new tab)
  6. Zaharia, C., Reiner, M., & Schütz, P. (2015). Evidence-based Neuro Linguistic Psychotherapy: A meta-analysis. Psychiatria Danubina, 27(4), 355–363. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26609647/ (opens in a new tab)
  7. Kotera, Y., Sheffield, D., & Van Gordon, W. (2019). The applications of neuro-linguistic programming in organizational settings: A systematic review of psychological outcomes. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 30(1), 101–116. doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21334 (opens in a new tab)
  8. Passmore, J., & Rowson, T. (2019). Neuro-linguistic programming: A review of NLP research and the application of NLP in coaching. International Coaching Psychology Review, 14(1), 57–69. doi.org/10.53841/bpsicpr.2019.14.1.57 (opens in a new tab)
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